Introduction: Challenges of contemporary fire management
For most of us, Single-family-dwelling fires are the most common structural fire we respond to, also known as a "bread-and-butter" run when the tones go off. But while in some minds the response can be considered "routine exercise," there is nothing routine about any kind of run - especially the single-family-dwelling fire. Every fire is different, and each building poses a different set of conditions that affect fire performance that the property manager ought to look into.
Buildings and fire form a complex system involving dynamic changes in fire behavior, coupled with the actions of active and passive fire defenses as well as interdependencies and interactions with building systems and human activities. Between issues such as building construction, access to the structure due to long driveways, subdivision access as well as not knowing "what is in that house" - the dangers are clear.
Fire spread can be hotter and faster these days due to the construction and fire load - and how the loads are manufactured. For example, the "sofa" of today is not the "sofa" of past-generation due to the way it is made and the materials used to make it. A 100% plastic sofa may give the appearance of being made of cloth and wood, but when it is burning, it creates a much hotter and faster-burning fire. In terms of building structure, since contemporary construction philosophy is to build the greatest number of houses in the shortest time, especially in overcrowded developing countries, lightweight wood construction material is getting lighter, more fragile and collapsing quicker when burning.
When responding to a dwelling fire, the property manager must be familiar with tactical considerations such as access, the neighborhood, specific construction types, company roles and assignments, operating tactics and water availability, all well before the alarm is transmitted. The property manager should also liaise with Firefighters so that they are "ready to work" upon arrival.
Additionally, property managers must be aware that literally “anything" could be in that house - and they must be prepared to deal with it in the event of a fire. For example, the term "meth lab," was never heard off previously but today they are commonly found and have injured firefighters in all types of neighborhoods. Fires in private dwellings kill and injure firefighters, even when they are fully prepared while attempting to save a life. Unfortunately, injury or the loss of firefighters in the line of duty happens more often when property managers fail to discover these potential fire-prone and haphazard “meth lab” in their neighborhoods.
Another challenging aspect of the property manager’s job in fire management is to assess the loss prevention and control program for the neighborhood so as to comply with compulsory regulations, meeting corporate standards and appease the insurance company. Difficulties could arise when the property manager assumes that a number can be attached to each factor involved in a loss. This is not practical. For example, what numerical value can be assigned to a human life? Even if it is accepted in principle that a dollar value can be coldly attached to a human life, this determination only scratches the surface of the problem. How should this dollar value be established? Should it be based on the individual's earning power, contribution to company earnings, cost of medical expenses, or value of life insurance? Even a generalized attempt to determine this value becomes extremely complicated and open to highly emotional debate.
A property manager should be able to take the responsibility of managing fire safety inside a building. Here are some aspects and suggestions for property managers.
Common causes of fire that should raise the attention of property managers
The property manager should know these basic common causes of fire in order to plan active or passive fire safety plan.
Smoking
A common cause of fire in both domestic and industrial settings is lack of care in the handling and disposal of smokers’ materials. Cigarettes and matches are ready sources of ignition, each producing characteristic fire development sequences. The forgotten cigarette allying off an ashtray when its centre of gravity changes and the fire caused by emptying an stray onto combustible materials in a waste basket are images used to promote consciousness of fire safety, but such incidents are still all too frequent. Where a match or cigarette char is dropped onto clothing or bedding, the occurrence can have very serious consequences for the smoker. Such accidents may result in serious injury or death, particularly f the victims are children or elderly people, perhaps slow to recognize the danger or unable to summon help quickly. Research in the United Kingdom has identified older people as particularly at risk from fires involving clothing and bedding. Younger age groups are also at risk.
Matches
The most common use of matches is to light cigarettes, cigars and pipes and in this context, lighted matches are freely available as a means of ignition. Many users blow out a match flame with their breath or by shaking the match vigorously, before dropping it in a bin, or placing it in an ashtray. Some drop the match on the ground, with or without extinguishing it first, particularly if they are out of doors or in a large space such as a store or factory building. From time to time the flame will flare up again, perhaps when the match has been dropped on the ground or into a bin. If it has fallen onto flammable materials, fire may develop rapidly. Waste paper or other refuse may be ignited, spreading the fire to other fuels. In general, fire started by a match flame will result in an immediate outbreak.
Solid fuel
Open fireplaces and traditional solid fuel stoves add charm and comfort to a room. They can present particular dangers however, due to the necessity to add fuel and handle hot ash and cinders manually. Building regulations in most countries prescribe standards of construction designed to prevent heat transfer from the hearth or stove to underlying or surrounding combustible materials. In addition, a fender or similar protective device should be used to contain any hot fuel which escapes from the grate or fire box. Open fires must not be left unattended, unless provided with a mesh guard fine enough to prevent the escape of sparks from whichever type of solid fuel is used. Some types of wood and solid fuel eject hot particles while burning; these can be thrown onto nearby carpets, furniture or the clothing of persons standing or sitting nearby. If the household includes elderly people, children or domestic animals, special care is necessary and a fireguard which can be secured to the wall on both sides of the fireplace and which is fitted a strong, secure top, is an essential safeguard.
Candles
The obvious danger of naked flame associated with candles is generally thought to be less if the candle is enclosed in a metal cage, and possibly covered with a glass or even plastic screen. The original ‘nightlight’, consisting of a small flat candle in a light steel cup, was intended for nursery or sickroom use. It was placed in a saucer of water and might be used uncovered or with a wide glass guard. The same type was used, set in a small glass bowl, as a votive lamp at religious shrines. The new vogue for use of candles as a fashion item has seen a great increase in their use for home decoration. However, many users have very little awareness of the potential of apparently ‘safe’ candles to cause fires. The nightlight or tea light consists of a metal cup filled with wax into which a wick is set, anchored in a steel strip set in the bottom of the wax. The outer cup gets hot as the candle burns. The manufacturers’ instructions issued with such candles include a warning not to place the night light on a surface which can be damaged by heat, but to set it on a heat-proof base, preferably in a saucer of water, before leaving it unattended.
Hot work
Under this category are collected industrial operations including mechanical cutting and grinding, welding, and the use of gas torches, propane and butane as well as oxyacetylene. All the operations produce heat sufficient to ignite flammable vapors and to cause flaming or smoldering in susceptible materials. The gas flames of oxyacetylene or ox propane equipment are sufficiently hot to melt steel and other metals, while those of the propane fuelled torches used in roofing work reach 1200°C. The ‘sparks’ thrown out by welding, cutting and grinding equipment are in fact droplets of molten metal, heated to incandescence, capable of igniting flammable vapors and of causing smoldering or even flaming ignition in materials such as soft papers, fabrics and some plastic foams, if they come into contact with them while still sufficiently hot.
Mechanical failure
Mechanical failure of machinery can pose a fire hazard if moving parts become overheated through increased friction. Observation of recommended service intervals and periodic examination for wear and tear is essential for safe operation of all machinery, whether industrial or domestic. Machinery should be shut down immediately in the event of unusual sounds or odors during operation. It is also necessary to provide appropriate fire detection and containment systems, as the following incidents illustrate.
Overheating of electrical installations
Heat is generated when an electric current passes through a conductor and provision must be made for its safe dissipation. Appliances are provided with heat sinks and ventilation grilles, and instructions-for-use warn that these should not be covered or obstructed. However, it is often not realized that plugs, sockets, fuses and lamp holders, while continuing to function normally, can become hot enough in certain circumstances to constitute a fire hazard. This is particularly so where these items are in contact with wood or wood products, as smoldering can be initiated in wood at temperatures which are far lower than those required to ignite the plastics used to manufacture electrical components. Plugs and sockets used to connect built-in dishwashers and clothes dryers and hidden under kitchen worktops or behind the backs of the appliances are particularly at risk, due to the relatively high current (close to 12 A in some cases), drawn by these appliances when the motor, pump and heating element are operating together, as in a clothes drier and in the rinsing cycle of a dishwasher. This is because the flat pins of the ordinary 13 A fused plug with which many such appliances are fitted, do not make sufficiently good contact within the socket terminals, leading to the development of ‘hot spots’. Eventually the plug may disintegrate, or the internal insulation in the socket may break down, posing a serious fire hazard. In addition, the hot socket may ignite the surface to which it is attached, if this is combustible. The socket may become hot enough to cause wood to char long before the plastics become hot enough to burn. This sequence of events can occur without rupturing the plug fuse or tripping the MCB or RCD, because it happens at normal current loads and without causing a short circuit.
Spontaneous combustion
Exothermic chemical reactions can occur at ambient or even low temperatures, resulting in physical and chemical changes in the materials involved. Oxidation of plant and animal materials is the most widespread, but not the only, reaction of this type.
The potential problem of dangerous materials
One of the problems in fire safety management is the dangerous materials management. The nature of fire is the chemical combination of oxygen with other molecules in an exothermic reaction. These dangerous materials are materials which are easy to have reaction with oxygen above certain threshold energy or temperature. In fact most materials can have reaction with oxygen in fire. However, they have different characteristics in real fire situations. Here are two basic types of materials that need to be considered.
The first type is combustible materials. They are anything that will burn. Examples are finely divided solids, such as shavings of wood, foamed plastics; loose paper and torn upholstery are especially easy to burn. The second type is flammable materials. They are most likely in liquid form or gas form, have a relatively low threshold burning temperature (Usually below 100°C), and can easily create ignition. These two types of materials can be easily found in our daily used product.
Research shows that in modern products a larger variety of different materials are used. For example, compared to thirty years ago, a table may be made of plastic, wood, glass, metal, and rubber instead of purely wood. If this kind of table is on fire, it may generate fire, flame, and toxins at the same time. As the complexity of products materials mix increased, the situations in real fire have also become more complicated. Fire fighters need more knowledge on fire materials. Different situations need to be categorized. Fire engineering researcher need to do more analysis and study. With no doubts, the best way is to prevent a fire situation to happen.
Property manager’s role is to minimize the risk of fire materials. But in some cases, the careless management may cause disasters. Here is an example:
In year 2003, a wine warehouse in California occurred. The fire wiped out millions worth of rare vintages. For this warehouse owner the potential loss of years of effort and hope spelled big trouble. The fire is being regarded as suspicious partly because the building appeared to be fire-resistant, a dense, concrete structure once used to repair submarines. And fortunately no one was seriously injured in this fire. The investigation showed the fire was caused by a short circuit spark of the building’s old electricity system.
In this case, wine is a flammable liquid which need to be taken great care of. Obviously the property manager did not realize the potential danger from the electrical out sparking. And the disaster happened.
For property manager there are three ways to reduce the risk of potential dangerous materials. They are periodic inspection, zone isolation, and to use fire suppression system.
Periodic inspection means the property manager need arrange people who have relevant knowledge and equipment to check regularly. Before planning the inspection, combustible and flammable rating must be analysis first. For example, property manager can follow NFPA System for Flammability Rating, (See the table below) and make plan based on the rating. High rating materials need to be inspected more frequently. Modern technology such as inferred camera, temperature sensor should also be equipped for inspectors.
Rating
Hazard Description
0
Materials that will not burn.
1
Materials that must be preheated before they will ignite.
2
Materials that must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high ambient temperatures before they will ignite.
3
Liquids and solids that can ignite under almost all temperature conditions.
4
Materials which will rapidly vaporize at atmospheric pressure and normal temperatures, or are readily dispersed in air and which burn readily.
Zone isolation is to use fire retardant materials to cover the dangerous zone like what I mentioned in the previous part about the wine warehouse. Once the dangerous zone is on fire, the combustible and flammable materials will help the fire spread faster. If the zone is covered by fire retardant materials, people will have more time to escape. Fire retardant ceilings and walls can cover most of the area. Usually the weak point is at the door. Property manager should ensure fire retardant doors with up-to-stand quality are installed. A good fire retardant door usually can keep away a fire for three or four hours.
Nowadays fire suppression system is commonly used in almost every building. Property manager need to customize the system to suit the usages of different buildings. To ensure safety, the position and number of fire extinguisher must be related to the position, quantity, and type of materials stored in the building. For example, it requires more fire extinguishers in a wood warehouse while it requires less near a swimming pool. The other important is the selection of sprinklers. Sprinklers have different temperature sensitivity. To handle dangerous materials, it is better to choose one which can be triggered in a relative lower temperature. And sprinkler system should not be applied partially, because fire will always start from unprotected area. After fire starts and spreads, sprinkler system will not make any work. Fire will make damage on sprinkler piping system.
Fire Safety for the Elderly and Handicapped
With the advent of medical technology, life expectancies have been gradually increasing for the past few decades. As a result, there are now more elderly to care for. In fact, the elderly is predicted to reach 30% of the population of Singapore by 2030. Furthermore, many with physical disabilities who would have been bedridden for life now have a new lease of life with the introduction of motorized wheelchairs and numerous other devices to help them move around by themselves.
As a result, these people have to be given special consideration by the property manager, especially when considering fire safety measures. Even during the building phase of the property, consideration has to be given to the installation of a fire safety system and possible holding places for the elderly and handicapped in the event of a fire.
For certain types of properties, like a home for the elderly or a hospital or a factory, it is a good idea to have a buddy system, where each handicapped or elderly person has a buddy who is more able and young, preferably people who are at the same place as the elderly or handicapped person. In case of a fire or any other disaster which requires evacuation, the buddy, if not with the person, will inform rescuers and firefighters that their buddy is still inside the building. This buddy system is very useful in accounting for the total number of people evacuated and the number who are still in the building. It does become useless, though, when the buddy is also trapped.
Furthermore, for places in which the elderly or handicapped reside permanently, there should be a board specifying the ailment of each person and what special handling is required for each person. This will facilitate evacuation during a fire or any other event.
As for other public buildings, like shopping centers, it might be a problem if the elderly or handicapped travel alone, or with other elderly or handicapped people. As such, the property manager should instruct security guards or information counter personnel to note any handicapped people or people who appear old and frail. As security guards and information counter personnel are usually situated at the entrance of shopping centers, they are thus ideally placed to note the number of handicapped and elderly in the building. Thus, in the event of a fire, they can inform the firefighters about these people who might still be in the building.
As for the fire alarm, there should be an audible alarm as well as flashing lights in several places to alert those who are hard of hearing.
The most useful feature for the handicapped and elderly during a fire will be safe areas where they can remain safe from the fire for some time until help arrives. Some buildings already have such an arrangement, such as the safe floor in the Petronas Towers in Malaysia and the requirement for a fire door for newer flats in Singapore. Such areas are very useful and might even be crucial to the survival of the handicapped and elderly who are unable to evacuate as easily as others. These areas could also be useful for young children or pregnant females who might be similarly unable to evacuate. In order to be effective in a fire, these areas have to be equipped with sprinklers and a fire resistant door, walls and ceiling, have two-way communication capabilities. These areas also have to have window access to ensure there is sufficient ventilation as well as offer an avenue for rescuers to access the area.
In tandem with the buddy system, a number of safe areas in a building could prove to be vital for the survival of handicapped and elderly people in a fire. However, there are several new inventions which could further aid evacuation of the elderly and handicapped during a fire. One of them is a modifiable telescopic fire pole which can double up as a rescue chute for the elderly and handicapped. The continual advancement of technology means a property manager should constantly be on the lookout for ways to improve the fire safety of a building, be it for the elderly and handicapped or for everyone in the building in general.
Conclusion
Fire safety is one type of building safeties that need to be taken serious consideration. The building property manager is response to prevent fires or limit their effects. The situation in Singapore is much more civil engineering projects are being built in recent years. These projects include high-rise building in marina area, research center near National University of Singapore, MRT underground tunnel, and new HDB. The first trend is the height of buildings increased due to financial market development and larger population density. If fire happened in today’s building, more people’s life will be threatened. The second trend is in research area some experimental materials like heavy metal, Floury, Arsenide, and high voltage source need to be taken great care of, because they may easily cause fire, release toxin smoke and gas, or create large flame. The third trend is associated with the aging society in Singapore, thus fire safety for elderly is now a big issue. And fire safety in Singapore has become more challenging and important than before.
In real practices the property management should consider the three aspects we mentioned as well as the budget.
References
Online Sources
Flammable Materials
http://safety.science.tamu.edu/flammables.html
Combustible and flammable materials
http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/pa/newsbulletin/2003/06/16/safety_tip_flames.html
Hazardous Chemicals - Flammable and Combustible Materials
http://www.chem.ubc.ca/safety/safety_manual/haz_chem_flam.shtml
Hotel Fire Case
http://www.iklimnet.com/hotelfires/case.html
Book Sources
Wiley(2005) Evaluation of fire safety
Haessler(1992) Fire fundamentals and control
Jack B. Re VELLE, PhD, Joe Stephenson,PhD,CSP., (2ed,1995) Safety Training Methods: practical solutions for the next millennium. A Wiley-Interscience Publication.
Library online sources
Fire and Materials
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/journal/3189/home?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
Fire investigation
http://www.forensicnetbase.com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/books/1210/tf1255_fm.pdf
Fire retardant materials
http://www.materialsnetbase.com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/books/4391/wp3883fm.pdf
Fire Safety Journal
http://www.sciencedirect.com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/journal/03797112
Fundamentals of fire phenomena
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/cgi-bin/bookhome/112636754
